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1 Introduction Diabetes mellitus (DM) has become one of the most severe global health challenges of the 21st century, with its complications posing a significant threat to human health ( Chronic hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in the onset and progression of DR, as excessive ROS, primarily generated under high glucose conditions, inflict damage on tissues surrounding retinal blood vessels and neurons, thereby driving DR pathogenesis ( In addition to these metabolic disruptions, aberrant epigenetic modifications ( Oxidative stress has been increasingly recognized as a central driver of DR, mediating a wide array of pathological changes across retinal cell types ( In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive and updated synthesis of the mechanisms by which oxidative stress contributes to DR, with particular emphasis on molecular pathways, cell-specific vulnerability, and emerging antioxidant strategies, including nutraceuticals and targeted delivery systems

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Psychiatry 27 , 555–561 (2003)